Happiness can be defined in a number of different ways, often believed to be a mental and emotional state of well-being that is characterized by positive or pleasant emotions. It is a concept of great importance. A huge range of philosophers have approached this concept, striving to define happiness and identify its source. Linking back to the early stages of philosophy, both Plato and Aristotle believed that happiness was the supreme good.
English philosopher Jeremy Bentham is renowned for his moral philosophy, especially his formulation of the principles of utilitarianism which depicts and evaluates actions based upon their consequences. As a utilitarian himself, Bentham was known for introducing the measuring of quantities such as pleasure and pain as he could then estimate the amount of each he was likely to encounter when taking part in an activity.
He believed that these consequences were that of an action that had an overall tendency to promote the greatest amount of happiness therefore promoting the greatest amount of pleasure. Bentham dictated that pleasure is derived of simple sensations caused by actions such as eating, drinking, sex, wealth, and kindness to animals, etc. which when maximised increases happiness. However Aristotle made distinctions between pleasure and pain and refused to link happiness with the pleasure of the senses. He said the relation between an activity and its pleasure was one of cause and effect.
Influenced by many enlightenment thinkers, especially empiricists such as John Locke and David Hume, Bentham developed an ethical theory grounded in a largely empiricist account of human nature. Bentham believed that nature is explained through the laws of physics concluding that human behaviour can be explained by two primary motives, pleasure and pain. He explores this in his work conveying that “nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do.” This became his theory of psychological hedonism.
From this we see that, for Bentham, pleasure and pain serve not only as explanations for action, but they also define one’s good. It is, in short, on the basis of pleasures and pains, which can exist only in individuals, that Bentham thought one could construct a calculus of value, known as the felicific calculator. The calculator took into account the intensity, duration and extent of the different dimensions of pleasure and pain. One of the variables was fecundity; this is the probability that the action will be followed by sensations of the same kind. And opposing this is Purity: The probability that it will not be followed by sensations of the opposite kind.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was another British philosopher who followed in Bentham’s footsteps, developing his ethical theory and continuing his consequentialist views. Consequentialism is the view that morality is solely about producing the right kinds of overall consequences. Mill also believed in the formulation of utilitarianism, promoting the "greatest-happiness principle". Mill however argues against Bentham who believed that all forms of happiness are equal whereas Mills disputes intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to more physical forms of pleasure. Mill defines the difference between higher and lower forms of happiness with the principle that those who have experienced both tend to prefer one over the other. His argument is that the "simple pleasures" tend to be preferred by people who have had no experience with high art, and are therefore not in a proper position to judge.
Schopenhauer (1788- 1860) a German philosopher is best known for his book, “The World as Will and Representation” in which he claimed that our world is driven by a continually dissatisfied will, that is continually seeking satisfaction. Schopenhauer was the first to branch out and study another civilisation and religion that related to his own theories; therefore he studied Hinduism and Buddhism. He believed that to reach the thing-in- itself, our own individuality is reality therefore to persuade us down the path of virtue to asceticism whilst reaching a moral state of self-denial.
Asceticism is similar to the state that Buddhist and Hindu saints teach, it is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from various worldly pleasures, with the aim of maintaining religious and spiritual goals.
Schopenhauer believed he was very much like a Buddhist. His 'World as Will and Representation' delves into the processes behind Hinduism and Buddhism, and brings about the Kantian influenced idea of 'The Will'. This is the idea that the universe itself is one noumena, one thing in which everything is connected together as one form. This theory of the Will originates from Brahma, creator of the universe, father of Manu, of which all human life descended from. It is believed that everything is connected and individual existence cannot survive on its own and everything else that we see is just like the Kantian phenomena.
Schopenhauer believed that the underlying reality of the world is one vast “will”, a non-rational aimless urge which is the source of all our suffering. Schopenhauer informed in his work that our wills never change but our awareness to the will can. We are all at the mercy of the will, it infects everything we think and do and we will all suffer until our needs are satisfied as we are slaves to its demands. He believed that to overcome the will is through intoxication. Schopenhauer teaches that to overcome desire we must intoxicate ourselves in our addiction. So much so that we become void of it. Sex, drugs, alcohol can only be temporarily achieved as we cannot achieve ecstasy from an orgasm for the entirety of life, nor can we remain high, or drunk. He believes a better path to take would be through the contemplation of the arts and in particular music. He believed the best way to overcome desire is to drive oneself into a trance through music, of course not entirely long term and infinite, as there will be a time when the music will stop, and the notes will run out.
The founder of Aesthetics is Baumganen. Aesthetics is the philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and the appreciation of its exquisiteness. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment and taste. Plato’s forms defined that we can’t see the most perfect, beautiful things but we can perceive when something is.
The most powerful aesthetic response is music. Materialists would argue that our reaction to music is because of neurons and chemicals within the brain however both Nietzsche and Schopenhauer used it as a way of overcoming the Will.
Nietzsche was a German Philosopher; who began his “campaign against morality” calling himself an “immoralist” whilst harshly criticizing Christianity, Kantianism and Utilitarianism. His concept “God is dead” applies to the doctrines of Christendom, though not to all other faiths as he claimed that Buddhism is a successful religion that he complimented for cultivating critical thought. Nietzsche says without a god/religion or faith there are two moral grounds to take. These fall under Apollo and Dionysus, the two sons of Zeus. An Apollonian is an individual who stays in control, they think things through, and prepare for eventualities. Whereas a Dionysian is carefree, emotionally detached and ignore the world’s goings on, and just 'let it be'. Still, Nietzsche saw his philosophy as a counter-movement to nihilism through the appreciation of art and music.
Nietzsche believed the best way of embracing the will was through the purest form of intoxication, this being music. He was influenced by the German composer Wagner. Wagner believed art, and music especially, can perform the same function as religion by being able to express the true characteristics of human beings and their nature
Nietzsche’s “will to power” is similar to the concept of the “will” from Schopenhauer. Nietzsche believed that every human is a function of power and we must embrace this. He believes that desire is the best bit of life. It is achieving our desire that brings us happiness. And therefore desires should be built upon. You should never ignore a desire, but you must overcome it. What differentiates Schopenhauer’s will from Nietzsche's will is that he wants to deny it and Nietzsche wants to embrace it.
For example, if you're going to give in to a desire, then you must make it the most passionate, incredible time of your life, the best ever.
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